Hanfu is the traditional clothing of the Han Chinese.
Before the Hanfu movement took off, the term "Hanfu" did not exist. Early online posts referred to Hanfu as the clothing of the Han ethnic group, Huaxia clothing, Han attire, Han costume, Huafu, etc. Netizens offered various interpretations, with no unified definition. Subsequently, the netizen "Huaxia Bloodline" proposed the term "Hanfu."
The concept was established and gained widespread acceptance, thus the name "Hanfu" was finalized. (See Yang Na, 2016:
30; Zhao Junqiang, 2017) However, the term "Hanfu" has different definitions in ancient and modern times.
(I) Ancient Definition The term "Hanfu" first appeared in cultural relics records, specifically in the Western Han Dynasty bamboo slips unearthed at Mawangdui in Changsha, which described the clothing of four "carved clothing figurines." The excavation report states, "Slip 44 describes four beautiful women, two in Chu clothing and two in Han clothing." It further notes, "The carved clothing consists of a long robe with a cross-collar and right-fastening. It features painted patterns of the Xinqi Township on a black background, with velvet embroidery along the edges, and red painting on the hem. This is likely the 'shenyi' mentioned in the *Book of Rites* (specifically, the *Yuzao* section), which describes 'wearing a black robe in the morning and a deep robe in the evening.' Over this is a short, open-fronted tunic with painted embroidered patterns." (Wang Jiawen, 2014)
Besides, the earliest record is found in the Book of Han from the Eastern Han Dynasty: "They frequently came to pay homage, enjoyed the clothing and system of the Han Dynasty, returned to their country, built palaces, issued edicts and guards, and made announcements when they came and went, striking bells and drums, just like the Han Dynasty."8 Cai Yong of the Eastern Han Dynasty said in his "Duduan": "The Tongtian crown: the emperor's everyday attire. Han clothing was inherited from Qin, but there is no mention of it in the Book of Rites." (Wang Jiawen, 2014)
The earliest record of the concept of "Hanfu" refers to clothing from the Han region or the Han Dynasty. From then on, "Hanfu" in different dynasties explicitly referred to Han Chinese clothing, distinct from the clothing of other ethnic groups. For example, the Tang Dynasty's *Man Shu* states: "The Chang people are originally Han Chinese. Their tribe is north of the Iron Bridge, and the year of their migration is unknown. Initially, they wore Han clothing, later incorporating customs from other tribes. To this day, they only wear their headscarves with morning glow, otherwise they are no different." The Song Dynasty's *Xin Tang Shu* states: "The Han Chang barbarians are originally a tribe of Han Chinese, residing at the Iron Bridge. They only wear their headscarves with morning glow; otherwise, they wear the same Han clothing." (Wang Jiawen, 2014)
Later ancient texts provide detailed records of the dual clothing systems used by the Liao Dynasty, encompassing both Han and non-Han peoples. The Yuan Dynasty's *History of Liao*, Volume 55, Chapter 24, "Ceremony and Guards," states: "After Emperor Taizong entered Jin, the emperor and Han officials of the Southern Class wore Han clothing; the empress dowager and Khitan officials of the Northern Class wore the national dress, which was a legacy of the Five Dynasties and Jin Dynasty." (Wang Jiawen, 2014) The early Qing Dynasty's *Northern Travels Record* states: "The emperor and Han officials of the Southern Class wore Han clothing, while the empress dowager and Khitan officials of the Northern Class wore the national dress, which was a legacy of the Five Dynasties and Jin Dynasty… After the Qianheng era, even officials of the third rank and above wore Han clothing. After the Chongxi era, Han clothing was used for all grand ceremonies." (Wang Jiawen, 2014) Here, "national dress" refers to the clothing of the non-Han peoples; while "Han clothing" refers to the clothing of the Han people. Given the abundance of records about "Han clothing," the term is not new.
However, "Hanfu" does not appear as a proper noun in historical records, but rather corresponds to "Hufu".
Compared to "Hanfu," ancient Chinese people more often used "Han clothing and headwear" to refer to the clothing and headwear of the Han Chinese people. While the term "Hanfu" appeared consistently in ancient times, it didn't explicitly define its meaning. In his 1996 publication, *A Comprehensive Dictionary of Chinese Clothing and Headwear*, Gao Chunming, a researcher of ancient clothing history, summarized the ancient concept of "Hanfu" as follows:
(I) Han Chinese clothing in the Liao Dynasty clothing system, (II) Han Dynasty clothing, (III) Han Chinese clothing in general. (See Gao Chunming, 1996:12) Therefore, the author believes that the definition of "Hanfu" in ancient times can be roughly divided into the above three concepts.
(II) Modern Definition Due to the rise of the Hanfu movement, the term "Hanfu" has been reintroduced. Academics and Hanfu promoters hold different views on the definition and concept of "Hanfu."
In 2003, Professor Yang Zhigang of Fudan University argued that "Hanfu" has never had a fixed concept. He stated that Han Chinese clothing, from the Han to the Song, and even the Ming and Qing dynasties, never had a fixed style and constantly changed; therefore, he considered "Hanfu" a pseudo-concept. (See Jiang Ke'an, 2003) Furthermore, Professor Liu Yingsheng of Nanjing University also pointed out that "Hanfu" is a vague concept because clothing constantly develops and evolves with the times. (See Jiang Ke'an, 2003) Ye Chunsheng, a doctoral supervisor in the Department of Chinese Language and Literature at Sun Yat-sen University and an expert in folk culture, believes that "Hanfu" is actually a new term, as the term does not appear in any ancient or modern texts. (See Wang Yongxing, 2008) However, the term "Hanfu" appears multiple times in historical records, therefore this claim is incorrect.
Although modern scholars have pointed out blind spots in the definition of "Hanfu," Hanfu revivalists still offer multiple versions of its concept. The following is the definition of "Hanfu" generally accepted by Hanfu revivalists:
Zhang Mengyue's "A Brief Study of Hanfu" (August 2005):
Han Chinese traditional clothing (referred to as "Hanfu") mainly refers to the traditional clothing and attire system that evolved naturally over nearly four thousand years, from the 21st century BC to the mid-17th century AD (late Ming and early Qing dynasties), in the main inhabited areas of the Huaxia people (later known as the Han ethnic group). This system, with the "Huaxia-Han" culture as its background and guiding ideology, possesses a unique Han Chinese style and character, clearly distinguishing it from other ethnic groups. (Zhang Mengyue, 2005)
Zhou Xing's 2008 article, "New Tang Suit, Hanfu, and the Hanfu Movement":
The term "Hanfu" has several meanings in currently known Chinese literature: first, it refers to the clothing of the Han Dynasty in Chinese history; second, it refers to the "ethnic clothing" of the Huaxia people, Han people, or Han ethnic group; a third opinion considers "Hanfu" as the clothing of the Han ethnic group, but at the same time believes that only it can represent China as "Huafu" or the "ethnic clothing" of the Chinese people. (Zhou Xing, 2008)
Wang Jiawen's "A Brief History of Hanfu" (2014):
"Hanfu, the traditional clothing of the Han Chinese, formerly known as Han clothing, Han attire, clothing, Chinese clothing, and Huafu, is a system of clothing that has been developed and passed down for over four thousand years (it disappeared during the Qing Dynasty due to the forced hair-shaving and clothing reforms, but began to revive in the early 21st century). It follows certain stylistic standards, distinguishes itself from other ethnic groups, embodies the cultural connotations of Han etiquette, customs, aesthetics, and philosophy, and demonstrates the spirit of national identity." (Wang Jiawen, 2014)
From the articles by Hanfu revivalists mentioned above, we know that there is no controversy regarding the statements that "Hanfu is the traditional clothing of the Han people" and "Hanfu is a clothing system that distinguishes itself from the traditional clothing of other ethnic groups." Their debate over the concept of "Hanfu" mainly focuses on the following three aspects (see Yang Na, 2016:5):
1. There are various interpretations regarding the time frame of "Hanfu". Different interpretations have emerged, such as "before the Ming Dynasty", "Han Dynasty", "nearly four thousand years from the 21st century BC to the mid-17th century AD (late Ming and early Qing Dynasties)", "from the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period to the Ming Dynasty", and "nearly three thousand years from the Western Zhou Dynasty to the Ming Dynasty (approximately the 11th century BC to the mid-17th century AD)".
2. There are several interpretations of the scope of "Hanfu". For example, "in the main residential areas of the Huaxia people (later known as the Han people)" and "in the mainstream society of the Huaxia people (later known as the Han people)".
3. There are different descriptions of the characteristics of the "Hanfu" system. These include: "Han clothing formed during the natural development of culture and the process of ethnic integration"; "a traditional clothing and accessories system with a unique Han national style and character, clearly distinguished from other ethnic groups, formed through natural evolution with the background and guiding ideology of "Huaxia-Han" culture; "a national clothing system with a unique ethnic style, clearly distinguished from other ethnic groups, formed through inheritance and evolution with the background of Huaxia culture"; "a decorative system of traditional clothing with a unique Han national cultural style and character, distinguished from other ethnic groups, formed through natural evolution based on Han national culture"; and "a clothing system that follows certain formal standards, distinguishes itself from other ethnic groups, embodies Han national etiquette, customs, aesthetic qualities, philosophical thought, and other cultural connotations, and demonstrates the spirit of Chinese national identity," among others.
Although the concept of "Hanfu" is still highly controversial, among these views, the basic concept of "Hanfu" held by Hanfu revivalists in China and overseas is that it is the traditional clothing of the Han people.
(III) Summary The similarity between the ancient and modern terms "Hanfu" is that "Hanfu" refers to the clothing of the Han people, and the term "Hanfu" is often used to distinguish it from the clothing of other ethnic groups. However, there are still differences in the meaning of the ancient and modern terms "Hanfu".
In ancient times, "Hanfu" was incorporated into the social system of etiquette and was a form of ritual expression. However, today's "Hanfu" is not included in China's political sphere and is more like a spontaneous folk fashion. (See Yang Na, 2016:5) China has been known since ancient times as a "nation of clothing and etiquette" and a "land of propriety." Clothing and etiquette are symbols of Chinese civilization. In Chinese culture, clothing, besides its practical functions of covering the body and protecting against the cold and heat, also carries special significance such as class identity, display of wealth, ethnic identification, gender identity, aesthetic differences, and expression of beliefs. Chinese clothing has political implications. After emperors ascended to power, they would "correct the calendar and change the colors of clothing," issuing the "Regulations on Carriages and Clothing" to standardize the clothing system of their dynasty, because in ancient times, Chinese clothing served the function of "knowing etiquette, distinguishing rank, and rectifying social status." To this day, however, there is no official response to the standardization of Hanfu, and no consensus among the people. All attempts and explorations were carried out amidst controversy. "Hanfu" no longer serves as a form of etiquette for modern people; instead, it has become an important symbol for the nation in its search for a sense of belonging.